Effects of Kombucha on Growth Performance, Antioxidant Status, Liver Function, and Gut Microbiota in Broiler Chickens Reared Under High Stocking Density

Document Type : Original Paper

Authors

Department of Animal Sciences, Agriculture Faculty, Lorestan University, Lorestan, Iran

10.22069/psj.2026.24107.2420

Abstract

High stocking density (HSD) improves space efficiency in broiler production but induces oxidative stress, impairs liver function, disrupts gut microbiota, and reduces growth. This study assessed the dose-dependent effects of kombucha in drinking water (0, 5, 10, and 15 mL/100 mL) to alleviate HSD stress in Ross 308 broilers reared at control (10 birds/m²) or high (15 birds/m²) density. Five hundred chicks were assigned to 40 pens in a 4×2 factorial design (kombucha × stocking density), with five replicates per treatment. Growth performance was monitored weekly. On day 42, serum liver enzymes (AST, ALT, ALP), antioxidant markers (MDA, GPx, TAC), ileal microbiota (Lactobacillus, coliforms, total anaerobes), and intestinal morphology were evaluated. HSD significantly reduced daily weight gain (DWG; 38.39 vs. 41.99 g/bird; P< 0.05). Only 15 mL/100 mL kombucha significantly enhanced DWG (43.55 g/bird) and feed conversion ratio (FCR = 1.690) over 42 days (P< 0.05). HSD increased serum AST and ALP (P< 0.05), indicating liver stress; 15 mL/100 mL kombucha markedly lowered these (231.3 and 2896 U/L, respectively). Antioxidant status improved dose-dependently: 15 mL/100 mL yielded the lowest MDA (7.01 nmol/dL) and highest GPx (397.9 U/L) and TAC (64.26 U/L; P< 0.05). Gut microbiota responded dose-dependently, 15 mL/100 mL maximized Lactobacillus (7.81 log₁₀ CFU/g) and total anaerobes (7.30 log₁₀ CFU/g) while minimizing coliforms (6.40 log₁₀ CFU/g). Although the villus height-to-crypt depth ratio peaked at 10 mL/100 mL (11.77), the 15 mL/100 mL dose offered the broadest benefits. Although no statistically significant kombucha × stocking density interaction was detected for DWG (P = 0.13), the numerical improvement under HSD suggests a protective effect. Kombucha supplementation at 15 mL/100 mL in drinking water is a highly effective, natural strategy to mitigate the multifaceted negative impacts of HSD in broilers, improving growth, liver health, antioxidant capacity, and gut microbial balance.

Keywords

References

Baracho MS, Nääs IDA, Lima NDS, Cordeiro AFS & Moura DJ. 2019. Factors affecting broiler production: A meta-analysis. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 21(3): eRBCA-2019. DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2019-1022.
Benzie IFF & Strain JJ. 1996. The ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) as a measure of "antioxidant power": the FRAP assay. Analytical Biochemistry, 239(1): 70-76. DOI: 10.1006 /abio.1996.0292.
Bhattacharya S, Gachhui R & Sil PC. 2011. Hepatoprotective properties of kombucha tea against TBHP-induced oxidative stress via suppression of mitochondria dependent apoptosis. Pathophysiology, 18(3): 221-234. DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2011.02.001.
Bhattacharya S, Gachhui R & Sil PC. 2013. Effect of Kombucha, a fermented black tea in attenuating oxidative stress mediated tissue damage in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 60: 328-340. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.07.051.
Chakravorty S, Bhattacharya S, Chatzinotas A, Chakraborty W, Bhattacharya D & Gachhui R. 2016. Kombucha tea fermentation: Microbial and biochemical dynamics. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 220: 63-72. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2015.12.015.
Choct M. 2009. Managing gut health through nutrition. British Poultry Science, 50(1): 9-15. DOI: 10.1080/00071660802538632.
Da Anunciação TA, Guedes JDS, Tavares PPL, de Melo Borges FE, Ferreira DD, Costa JAV & Magalhães-Guedes KT. 2024. Biological significance of probiotic microorganisms from kefir and kombucha: a review. Microorganisms, 12(6): 1127. DOI: 10.3390/ microorganisms 12061127.
Dechakhamphu A, Wongchum N, Chumroenphat T, Tanomtong A, Pinlaor S & Siriamornpun S. 2023. In vitro and in vivo evaluation for antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties of Cyperus rotundus L. Kombucha. Foods, 12(22): 4059. DOI: 10.3390/ foods12224059.
Diaz Carrasco JM, Casanova NA & Fernández Miyakawa ME. 2019. Microbiota, gut health and chicken productivity: What is the connection? Microorganisms, 7(10): 374. DOI: 10.3390/ microorganisms7100374.
Dufresne C & Farnworth E. 2000. Tea, kombucha, and health: a review. Food Research International, 33(6): 409-421. DOI: 10.1016/S0963-9969(00) 00067-3.
Ecklu-Mensah G, Miller R, Maseng MG, Hawes V, Hinz D, Kim C & Gilbert JA. 2024. Modulating the human gut microbiome and health markers through kombucha consumption: a controlled clinical study. Scientific Reports, 14(1): 31647. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-79897-2.
Gamboa-Gómez CI, González-Laredo RF, Gallegos-Infante JA, Pérez MD, Moreno-Jiménez MR, Flores-Rueda AG & Rocha-Guzmán NE. 2016. Antioxidant and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Litsea glaucescens infusions fermented with kombucha consortium. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 54(3): 367-374. DOI: 10.17113/ ftb.54.03.16.4622.
Gharib OA. 2009. Effects of Kombucha on oxidative stress induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Chinese Medicine, 4: 23. DOI: 10.1186/1749-8546-4-23.
Gholami M, Chamani M, Seidavi A, Sadeghi AA & Aminafschar M. 2020. Effects of stocking density and climate region on performance, immunity, carcass characteristics, blood constitutes, and economical parameters of broiler chickens. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 49: e20190049. DOI: 10.37496/rbz4920190049.
Janicka K, Drabik K, Wengerska K & Rozempolska-Rucińska I. 2025. Effect of stocking density on behavioural and physiological traits of laying hens. Animals, 15(4): 604. DOI: 10.3390/ ani15040604.
Kozyrovska NO, Reva OM, Goginyan VB & De Vera JP. 2012. Kombucha microbiome as a probiotic: A view from the perspective of post-genomics and synthetic ecology. Biopolymers and Cell, 28(2): 103-113. DOI: 10.7124/bc.000060.
Kridtayopas C, Rakangtong C, Bunchasak C & Loongyai W. 2019. Effect of prebiotic and synbiotic supplementation in diet on growth performance, small intestinal morphology, stress, and bacterial population under high stocking density condition of broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 98(10): 4595-4605. DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez152.
Landis EA, Fogarty E, Edwards JC, Popa O, Eren AM & Wolfe BE. 2022. Microbial diversity and interaction specificity in kombucha tea fermentations. mSystems, 7(3): e00157-22. DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00157-22.
Li XM, Zhang MH, Liu SM, Feng JH, Ma DD, Liu QX, Zhou Y, Wang XJ & Xu S. 2019. Effects of stocking density on growth performance, growth regulatory factors, and endocrine hormones in broilers under appropriate environments. Poultry Science, 98(12): 6611-6617. DOI: 10.3382/ ps/pez505.
Loh G & Blaut M. 2012. Role of commensal gut bacteria in inflammatory bowel diseases. Gut Microbes, 3(6): 544-555. DOI: 10.4161/ gmic.22156.
Malbaša RV, Lončar ES, Vitas JS & Čanadanović-Brunet JM. 2011. Influence of starter cultures on the antioxidant activity of kombucha beverage. Food Chemistry, 127(4): 1727-1731. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.02.048.
Nyhan LM, Lynch KM, Sahin AW & Arendt EK. 2022. Advances in kombucha tea fermentation: A review. Applied Microbiology, 2(1): 73-103. DOI: 10.3390/applmicrobiol2010005.
Ohland CL & Jobin C. 2015. Microbial activities and intestinal homeostasis: a delicate balance between health and disease. Cellular and Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 1(1): 28-40. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2014.11.004.
Qaid M, Albatshan H, Shafey T, Hussein E & Abudabos AM. 2016. Effect of stocking density on the performance and immunity of 1-to 14-d-old broiler chicks. Brazilian Journal of Poultry Science, 18: 683-692. DOI: 10.1590/1806-9061-2016-0289.
Salehi S, Sadeghi A & Karimi A. 2021. Growth performance, nutrients digestibility, caecum microbiota, antioxidant status and immunity of broilers as influenced by kombucha fermented on white sugar or sugar beet molasses. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 20(1): 1770-1780. DOI: 10.1080/1828051X.2021.1952910.
SAS Institute. 2022. SAS/STAT® User's Guide, Version 9.4. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA.
Simitzis PE, Kalogeraki E, Goliomytis M, Charismiadou MA, Triantaphyllopoulos K, Ayoutanti A & Deligeorgis SG. 2012. Impact of stocking density on broiler growth performance, meat characteristics, behavioural components and indicators of physiological and oxidative stress. British Poultry Science, 53(6): 721-730. DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2012.745930.
Sugiharto S. 2022. Dietary strategies to alleviate high-stocking-density-induced stress in broiler chickens - a comprehensive review. Archives Animal Breeding, 65(1): 21-36. DOI: 10.5194/ aab-65-21-2022.
Sugiharto S, Agusetyaningshi I, Widiastuti E, Wahyuni HI, Yudiarti T & Sartono TA. 2021. Growth and haematological response of broilers raised at high-density pens and fed germinated papaya seed and chitosan blend. Journal of Animal Health and Production, 10(4): 485-491. DOI: 10.17582/journal.jahp/2021/9.4.485.491.
Vīna I, Linde R, Patetko A & Semjonovs P. 2013. Glucuronic acid from fermented beverages: Biochemical functions in humans and its role in health protection. International Journal of Research and Reviews in Applied Sciences, 14(2): 217-230.
Vīna I, Semjonovs P, Linde R & Deniņa I. 2014. Current evidence on physiological activity and expected health effects of kombucha fermented beverage. Journal of Medicinal Food, 17(2): 179-188. DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2013.0031.
Watawana MI, Jayawardena N, Gunawardhana CB & Waisundara VY. 2015. Health, wellness, and safety aspects of the consumption of kombucha. Journal of Chemistry, 2015: 591869. DOI: 10.1155/2015/591869.
Yapar K, Cavusoglu K, Oruç E & Yalcin E. 2010. Protective effect of kombucha mushroom (KM) tea on phenol-induced cytotoxicity in albino mice. Journal of Environmental Biology, 31(5): 615-621.
Yegani M & Korver DR. 2008. Factors affecting intestinal health in poultry. Poultry Science, 87(10): 2052-2063. DOI: 10.3382/ps.2008-00091.
Zhao YS, Eweys AS, Zhang JY, Zhu Y, Bai J, Darwesh OM, Zhang HB & Xiao X. 2021.
Fermentation affects the chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of plant-based food materials: A review. Antioxidants, 10(12): 2004. DOI: 10.3390/ antiox10122004.
Poultry Science Journal
Volume 14, Issue 2
November 2026
Pages 191-199

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics